Passages such as the opening sentence of the prologue to Ecclesiasticus--“The Law, the Prophets, and the later writers have left us a wealth of valuable teachings, and we should praise Israel for the instruction and wisdom they provide” (TEV)--indicate that Israelite education was highly valued toward the end of the biblical period (2nd century B.C.).  However, the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament, although it is the primary source of information about education in ancient Israel, does not present any systematic description of this education.  Rather, references are scattered throughout, particularly in the wisdom books such as Ecclesiasticus, the Wisdom of Solomon and Proverbs. There is no hard evidence concerning the context within which education occurred: did parents assume responsibility for educating their children, or did they entrust boys (and possibly girls) to professional educators?

The task of describing an educational system for any one culture is daunting, since cultures are constantly changing. It is likely that Israelite education underwent changes during Israel’s long history.  This is especially true of the educational institutions, which were probably affected by changes in political history. In general, education found in the time of the judges ( 12th-13th centuries B.C.) did not remain the same down to the time of the Maccabees (2nd century B.C.), who were confronted with Hellenistic education. Moreover, education was not necessarily the same throughout all levels of society.

Cultures also absorb influences from other cultures. Built into the Israelite religious system were careful rituals, symbols, and systems that existed to intentionally preserve the tradition, and keep it pure and untainted from outside forces. That is, the tradition worked at keeping the tradition.  Yet at the same time, traces of other civilizations, particularly those from Canaan, Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Greece, were probably assimilated from time to time into Israelite educational practices.

The above caveats illustrate that considerable diversity characterized education in ancient Israel.
The purpose of this essay is to provide a general overview, organized chronologically, of that education.

Pre-Exilic

In the early period of Hebrew history, prior to the exile of 586/587 B.C., the primary teachers were the tribe and the family, particularly the parents, and education was focused on the children. The Hebrews were originally nomadic tribes.  Training involved actual participation in the various agrarian occupations, such as farming, tent-making, making of tools, and fishing. Knowledge was passed through generations through stories during long evenings around the campfires, conversations around the well, or in the home doing domestic chores.

There were most likely some educational institutions in this period.  Mesopotamian archaeological remains include word lists and instructions on farming; while Sumerian remains include tracts on school discipline and dialogues.

As the offices of priest and prophet began to emerge, written literature was developed from the rich depository of oral tradition within the Hebrew culture. The need to be able to read became important. Education focused on teachers who would teach reading and writing. It was natural for priests to be considered the teachers of the community.

Within the community, prophets were also considered teachers. Hebrew prophets were seen as the channel through which Yahweh could speak. Although they were foretellers of the future, these prophets also served as wandering, public instructors, teaching the people the word of the Lord regarding matters of public and private religious concern.

Exile

Jerusalem was destroyed by the Babylonians in 586/587 B.C.. Those Hebrews deported to Babylon were confronted with unfamiliar customs and mores, causing, on one hand, cultural accommodation and yet, on the other, a fierce attempt to stabilize their tradition, hence the Priestly Code.

The family was still the primary learning center in the tradition, even during the 70 years of the Exile. The Hebrews regarded children as a gift from God and a great amount of energy was given to educating them for the future. Parents were responsible for their conduct and were the primary teachers. Both parents were responsible but the primary responsibility in the patriarchal culture was given to the father, although passages such as Tobit 1.8 indicate that women (in this case, Tobit’s grandmother) also instructed children.

The religious cycle of the tradition as seen in the home provided many teachable moments for the young Jewish child. Festivals and feasts were a prominent teaching tool. Passover, the Feast of Weeks, and the Festival of Tabernacles provided opportunities for children to ask questions and to learn.

During this time, however, more formal education began to emerge.  Boys were taught how to read and write; elementary education in childhood taught the Jewish boy to read and memorize portions of the Hebrew Bible, especially the Pentateuch. Primary education gave the Jewish boy a thorough knowledge of Mosaic history. Higher education was given to the detailed study of the Law--its practice and definition. Girls were given instruction in domestic duties, such as spinning, weaving, the preparation of food, caring for children. Women were also formally trained in such concerns as midwifery and medicine.
Other educational opportunities existed for women ,especially those of the wealthier classes. Tobit’s grandmother (cited above) had some prior training. There is debate in the Mishnah on the education of women, meaning that some rabbis did consider women appropriate candidates for schooling; the Beruriah traditions similarly support this view of women’s education. The Babata archives present evidence of an educated women, as do the Elephantine Papyri (on Mibtachiah).

Teaching centers for the community emerged, and would later develop into the institution known as the synagogue. Philo, a first century A.D. Jewish philosopher, calls them “houses of instruction.” It was here that the Law was explained, expounded and applied. Scribes became essential to teaching and educating people concerning the law.

The concern for education prevailed in theory and practice. Pedagogy was shaped because of a desire to train children and a nation to be holy before God. Teaching was modeled and commanded by God. The young child was taught a little at a time, usually starting early in the morning. Mnemonic devices were given for easier memorization. Parables, an important and successful teaching tool, were used for moral instruction, and are found throughout much of Jewish literature, including the Talmud.

Post-Exile

Preserving the nation through religious education became even more important during post-exilic Judaism. An elaborate system of education was constructed. Priests maintained a primary educator role, devoting their duties to administration of the Temple. In time, however, as the temple functions became even more complex their role as teacher was given over more and more to the scribes. Likewise, as the tradition strengthened in numbers and purpose, a more complex educational system was also developed. Where before, the educational needs had primarily been served by the tribe and the family, in this period education became universal and compulsory for Jewish boys and men.

The role of priest and prophet as teacher began to decline. The role of scribe emerged as the primary teaching class. The scribes looked on their work as holy. They were given the sacred task of transmitting the laws given by Yahweh. They interpreted the laws for the people, guided religious thought and education, established elementary schools and colleges, and taught public and private instruction. Not all scribes were  involved in religious tasks. They also served as notaries, lawyers in  secular matters, and secretaries.

Two great names are associated with Jewish education. First, Simon ben-Shetach, brother of Queen Alexandra (reigned from 78-69 B.C.) was the one to declare elementary education compulsory. Second, Joshua ben-Gamala, who was High Priest from 63-65 A.D., established that teachers should be appointed for every district and that children should be brought to the appointed teachers at the age of six or seven years. Although there was education before Joshua, this High Priest reformed it and made education universal and more effective.

A teacher was held in high honor. In some cases, respect for the teacher probably surpassed parental respect. Certain qualifications were given. The teacher, even elementary school, was to be male and married. He was not to be idle, but even-tempered and with high moral standards. The moral character of the teacher was ranked higher than his academic standards. The teacher was to teach without pay. For the ideal was that a teacher should have a trade that would satisfy material needs and then he could teach for free. Rabbis thought there was a certain danger in simply developing an academic life. Everyone needed a trade of skill. Some teachers were also millers, carpenters, shoemakers, clerks, perfume distillers. Life’s greatest privilege was to be teacher, because it was a great honor to teach a child the Law.

Teaching methods were uniform, based on reading and oral learning, and conducted through repetition. A scholar needed to have a trained and retentive memory, for the whole of Jewish education was built on patient repetition and diligent memorization. Rabbi Akiba described it this way: “The teacher should strive to make the lesson agreeable to the pupils by clear reasons, as well as frequent repetitions, until they thoroughly understand the matter, and are able to recite it with great fluency.” Teaching, especially in rabbinic schools, also included debate and practice.

In elementary school, all young Jewish boys learned how to read, as well as the basics of arithmetic. Reading was learned by reading aloud portions of Hebrew scripture. As soon as the child could read, he was given parchment rolls with particular passages on them to read aloud and memorize. These passages were considered the basic ones: The Shema (Deut 6:4-6); The Hallel (Ps 113-118); The Story of Creation (Gen 1-5); The essence of Levitical Law (Lev 1-8). In addition, the boy had to find and learn a personal text, a text that began with the first letter of his name and ended with the last letter of his name.

Conclusion

Education in Israel remained a constant and powerful force in Israelite homes and Israelite society, even though the form and content of education changed with the needs of various times and places.  Still, whatever the time or place, education provided a structure for passing on valued teaching and sacred tradition and as such it must be considered one of the fundamental building blocks of Israelite life and faith.