The Origins of Gnosticism

The term, gnosticism, comes from the Greek word, gn´sis, which means a knowing or knowledge. Although its precise origins are a matter of scholarly debate, it is clear that Gnosticism has connections with various aspects of Judaism, Persian (Iranian) and Zoroastrian traditions, and Greek Hellenistic traditions. In the first century, Gnostic thought was most prevalent in Syria and Palestine. In the second century, the centers of Gnosticism shifted to Alexandria and Rome. The conventional picture of Gnosticism begins with the patristic literature and the heresiologists (viz., Irenaeus [c. 180 A.D.], Hippolytus [c. 200], and Epiphanius [c. 350], et al.; click here to read The Early Church Fathers online), who identified Gnosticism as a heresy, and used it in their efforts to construct early Christian orthodoxy. Writing in opposition to Gnosticism afforded these writers an opportunity to set in sharp relief the boundaries demarcating true and false belief.

The modern study of Gnosticism begins with Adolf von Harnack, a theologian and church historian, who described Gnosticism as the acute Hellenization of Christianity. This meant that Gnosticism did not precede Christianity. However, Gnosticism was not a separate but concurrent religion alongside Christianity either. Rather, Gnosticism broke off from Christianity when radical Christians sought to blend Christianity with Greek philosophy and Hellenistic cultural constructs and models of understanding. Harnack's position was contested by the History of Religions School, which was also intent on determining the origins of Gnosticism. Most of the scholars associated with this school of thought regarded Gnosticism as a pre-Christian and Oriental development. They wanted to understand the relationship of Gnosticism to Paul, Son of Man Christology, and the Christology of the Fourth Gospel. Other History of Religions scholars saw the origins of Gnosticism in Judaism, particularly apocalyptic Judaism and its frustration with the delay of victorious triumph. The problem with attempting to define Gnosticism and to determine its precise origins is that there is much diversity among both the texts and groups identified as Gnostic. Elaine Pagels, a New Testament scholar writes, 

Those who identified themselves as Christians entertained many and radically differing religious beliefs and practices (1979, xxiii).

Nevertheless, regardless of how Gnosticism originated and developed, and no matter what its early relationship to Christianity was, once the Roman Empire converted to a more conventional form of Christianity, Gnostic varieties had little chance of surviving. Another New Testament scholar, James Robinson, summarizes its demise thus: Gnosticism was ultimately eradicated from Christendom, except for occasional underground movements, some affinities in medieval mysticism, and an occasional tamed echo that stayed just within the limits of propriety (5). Gnostic Literature For a long time, the vast majority of sources available for the study of Gnosticism were written by those who were opponents of Gnosticism. The situation changed drastically in 1945 when twelve codices or books (along with part of a thirteenth), containing 52 tractates written in Coptic, were discovered near the village of Nag Hammadi, Egypt. The codices date from roughly the middle of the fourth century. However, nearly all of the texts are translations from Greek and Syriac originals. Hence, the time of their composition would have been significantly earlier, and the underlying sources of those originals would have been earlier still. The Nag Hammadi Library, as it is often called, features a variety of literary genres, covers a wide range of religious and philosophical topics, and represents a number of different schools of Gnostic thought (e.g., Sethian, Valentinian, and Hermetic). Among the collection are apocalypses, gospels, epistles, doctrinal treatises, wisdom books, hymns, and prayers. Many of these texts contain, in the form of paraphrases and running commentaries, alternative contemplations and interpretations of the creation accounts in Genesis.

In light of the discovery at Nag Hammadi, the conventional approach to Gnosticism has been criticized in recent years. Some scholars argue that gnosticism (with a lowercase g) should be distinguished from Gnosticism (with an uppercase g). Whereas the former is a collection of underdeveloped alternative formulations of burgeoning Christianity in the first and second centuries, the latter is a post-fourth century heretical system. Some of the Nag Hammadi texts seem to contend that certain Christian beliefs (e.g., virgin birth, bodily resurrection, et al.) are understood in terms too simplistic and literalist while other texts, as noted above, offer alternative interpretations of Genesis and the creation. Elaine Pagels rightly notes, those who wrote and circulated these texts did not regard themselves as heretics (1979, xix). Follow this link to read any of the texts from the Nag Hammadi Library in English.

Basic Teachings

Gnostic thought is radically and fundamentally dualistic. The polar opposition between spirit and matter provided Gnostics with a solution to the human condition, which Gnostics considered to be that of spirits trapped inside a physical body. Gnostics regarded the entire material universe to be both an illusion and the work of an evil and inferior demiurge (assisted by another lesser divine being) that acted defiantly, creating the world without the knowledge or authorization of the absolute, transcendent Unknown God. In order to put an end to the monstrous process of physical (nonspiritual) creation, the highest God had only one choice: to avail himself of cunning countermoves which he initiated among human beings, understood to be the apex of the physical creation (Rudolph 1992, 1033). In Gnosticism, the goal is to obtain freedom from the shackles of physical existence and the material world and to thus attain eternal life in a spiritual reality. This freedom is obtained through knowledge of the aforementioned cosmology and knowledge of one's imprisonment. This special, secret knowledge about the nature of physical reality is not learned but rather comes only through revelation whereupon the divine substance (variously called spirit, soul, and spark), placed within each human being by the highest God (without the evil demiurge knowing about it), is awakened and begins its ascent homeward to the Kingdom of Light.

Selected Bibliography*

• Charles W. Hedrick and Robert Hodgson, eds. Nag Hammadi, Gnosticism, and Early Christianity (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1986; Reprint Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock Publishers, 2005).
• Karen King, What Is Gnosticism? (Belknap Press/Harvard, 2003). Bentley Layton, The Gnostic Scriptures: Ancient Wisdom for the New Age, Anchor Bible Reference Library (Doubleday, 1987).
• Elaine Pagels, The Gnostic Paul: Gnostic Exegesis of the Pauline Letters (Trinity Press International, 1975).
• _____, The Gnostic Gospels (Vintage Books, 1979). Pheme Perkins, Gnosticism and the New Testament (Augsburg Fortress, 1993).
• Birger A. Pearson, Nag Hammadi Codices, in David Noel Freedman, ed., Anchor Bible Dictionary, 4:984-993 (New York: Doubleday, 1992).
• James A. Robinson, ed., The Nag Hammadi Library, rev. ed. (HarperSanFrancisco, 1990).
• Kurt Rudolph, Gnosis: The Nature and History of Gnosticism (HarperSanFrancisco, 1987 [Eng. trans.]).
  
• _____, Gnosticism, in David Noel Freedman, ed., Anchor Bible Dictionary, 2:1033-1040 (New York: Doubleday, 1992).
  
• Michael A. Williams, Rethinking Gnosticism: An Argument for Dismantling a Dubious Category (Princeton, 1996).

by Scott Elliott, PhD, Candidate Drew University, Madison, NJ

 *This list was prepared for readers and students who are interested in understanding some of the current trends among scholars who have studied this topic closely. The list is necessarily selective. While the Nida Institute for Biblical Scholarship considers these works to be of special interest, readers should understand that the views expressed in these works are the sole responsibility of their authors and the inclusion of these works on this list does not constitute an official endorsement by the Nida Institute for Biblical Scholarship or the American Bible Society.