Immediately before Luke’s story about the Good Samaritan, Jesus and a lawyer are discussing the way to have eternal life. In that discussion in Luke—and here Luke differs from both Mark and Matthew—the lawyer himself gives the evaluation of the whole of the Mosaic Law as constituted in Deuteronomy 6 and Leviticus 19.18. The article about the Great Commandment illustrates that this statement is similar both in function and content to other Jewish summaries of the Law. It was not uncommon for Jewish teachers to locate a verse or verses in the Scriptures that would serve as an accurate summary of the whole of the Mosaic Law, and at least one teacher, Rabbi Akiba, pointed to the same passage that Luke has pointed to here, Leviticus 19.

It is noteworthy, however, that Leviticus 19.18 is cited several times and in a wide variety of writings in the New Testament, most often to summarize the meaning of the Law in a comprehensive way. It is found in each of the synoptic Gospels (three times in Matthew), in Paul (in Romans and Galatians), and in the Epistle of James. This emphasis and pattern of using Leviticus 19.18 may be best explained as due to the impact of Jesus’ teachings. We will examine each of these uses, although only briefly with reference to the discussion with the lawyer in Luke 10 (and parallels) because that is done fully in another essay.

Mark’s use of Leviticus 19.18

Mark’s only citation of Leviticus 19.18 is as one-half of Jesus’ response to the questioner who asks about the “first” or “primary” commandment (Mark 12.28–34). In Mark’s usage, Leviticus 19.18 must be coupled with Deuteronomy 6.4-6 (the Shema) in order to comprehend the full and highest religious obligations of people. Thus Jesus’ questioner contrasts fulfilling “this command [singular, as if the two are only one command]” with “burnt sacrifices.” (This citation in Mark is more fully discussed in the article on the Great Commandment.)

Matthew’s use of Leviticus 19

Matthew’s Gospel first quotes Leviticus 19.18 in the section of the Sermon on the Mount called the “Antitheses” (Matt 5.43). But in Matthew the meaning of the Leviticus passage is discussed in relationship to another popular understanding of the biblical text in the time of the Gospel and not as Jesus’ summary of the Law. It has often been noted that the second half of Jesus’ quoted words, “and hate your enemies,” is not found in the Old Testament itself. But the point of Jesus’ words in Matthew 5 is to illustrate how Leviticus was being interpreted by some people in Jesus’ day, as can be documented in a relatively contemporary writing from the Dead Sea Scrolls (1 QS 1.9–11: “you shall love all sons of light … and hate all sons of darkness”).

Matthew presents Jesus’ understanding of this biblical passage in contrast with a common view that understood Leviticus 19.18 to be an obligation presenting standards of treatment between those within the chosen community as distinct from those without. Whereas others saw in Leviticus 19 the obligation to care for and assist only members of their group (either ethnic or perhaps even a sub-group within Judaism, because some Jewish persons did not regard themselves as obligated to assist heretical Jews), Jesus is shown to teach indiscriminate love to all persons in imitation of God’s unbounded graciousness to all with the gifts of sun and rain. Imitating such divine love both fulfills the intent of Leviticus 19 and makes the disciples of Jesus “perfect” (in the sense of “whole” rather then “flawless”). It is notable that the interpretation of Leviticus 19 presented in this metaphor of God’s indiscriminate care for all people is very similar to Luke’s point in giving the Parable of the Good Samaritan following his quotation of Leviticus 19.

Matthew’s next use of Leviticus 19 is found in Jesus’ discussion with a young ruler in Matthew 19.19. Here Leviticus 19.18 is presented as one of the commandments necessary to enter eternal life, but Leviticus 19.18 is not distinguished from the five commands that precede it, all of which come from the Ten Commandments. This story of the young ruler closely resembles Luke 10.25–28. In fact, many have suggested that this story, which is also found in Mark 10.17–22, is the true parallel to Luke 10. Mark 10, however, makes no reference to Leviticus 19.18.

The final quotation of Leviticus 19.18 in Matthew is fully discussed in the article about the Great Commandment.

Paul’s use of Leviticus 19

The apostle Paul (as found in his surviving epistles) quotes Leviticus 19 in Galatians 5.14 and in Romans 13.9. Each of these passages has concerns unique to the particular letter, but both make reference to Leviticus 19.18 as a means to summarize the demands of the Law.

In Galatians Paul is instructing a church in which ethnic Gentile Christians are being urged by some other teachers to place themselves under the Mosaic Law as part of their Christian life. The particularly prominent demand is that Gentile Christians accept the Jewish covenant mark of circumcision (5.12). Paul completely rejects such an approach and says that the whole Law is actually fulfilled in one word (recalling the rabbinic designation of the Ten Commandments as the ten words), “you shall love your neighbor as yourself,” thus quoting Leviticus 19.18. Here the passage in Leviticus is used not only to summarize the Law but does so in a contrast to observing each of the individual commands, especially the demand to circumcise that was so often stressed in Judaism.

The use in Galatians can be further elaborated by noting that just as Paul contrasts Leviticus 19.18 here with circumcision, so also in Galatians 5.6 he contrasts circumcision versus uncircumcision with faith active in love or faith energized by love. While the Leviticus passage is not cited explicitly, its focus on love as a counterpoint to circumcision is still present. A similar contrast follows in the next chapter (Gal 6.15), where Paul contrasts a new creation with circumcision versus uncircumcision. By comparing all three contingent passages, it seems clear that Paul presents Leviticus 19.18 as the meaning of the Mosaic Law and understands its fulfilling as a “new creation.” This interpretation is confirmed by looking at 1 Corinthians 7.19, where Paul contrasts circumcision with keeping the commandments of God (just as Galatians 5.14 says that the commandments are summed up in one word), although not explicitly quoting Leviticus 19.

Romans 13.9 is the other Pauline citation of Leviticus 19, and there too it is given as a summary of the demands of the Mosaic Law. The major difference is that the passage in Romans does not seek to correct an opposing view that promotes circumcision, and so Paul’s language is less strident. Here he quotes Leviticus 19 much as Jesus does in the Gospels, as a summary of the Law’s demands. This can be seen clearly in the first part of the verse, “and any other commandments there might be.” Thus Leviticus 19 is all-inclusive of the intents of the whole Jewish Law.

James’ use of Leviticus 19

The final New Testament citation of Leviticus 19 is in the Epistle of James 2.8, where it is called the “royal law.” It is uncertain whether James means by royal law the Old Testament (or Mosaic Law), Jesus’ new teaching as a law distinct from the Mosaic Law (or as a summary of it!), or the love command of Leviticus 19.18. However, since the discussion that follows in James 2.10–13 speaks of the “whole law,” it is most likely that by royal law the author means either the Ten Commandments or the totality of the Old Testament Law.

It is important to notice what leads James to mention the Leviticus passage. James elaborates on a favorite theme in the first seven verses of chapter 2, where he warns that any discrimination against the poor is unchristian. In the midst of giving reasons why this is so, James says that this violates the Law (meaning the Old Testament). That is why James 2.9–12 mentions two other Decalogue commands: do not commit adultery and do not murder. His point, then, is “If you keep those laws prohibiting adultery and murder, but show favoritism to the powerful and rich, it is just as if you broke the whole Law.” In contrast, one must keep the “royal law,” that is, to love your neighbor as yourself.

Conclusion

In summary, it seems clear that Leviticus 19.18 held a place of prominence among early Christians, especially as a means to summarize the intent of the Mosaic Law, parts of which they did not observe. In their understanding, this interpretation of Leviticus 19.18 derived from and represented well the claims of Jesus about religious priorities.