The issue of taking a life has been at the center of civic debate for centuries.

Today, in the United States, many nominees to judicial or political office find themselves in a maelstrom of controversy as the voting public scrutinizes their positions on issues such as abortion or assisted suicide that involve the willful destruction of life. Those who protest such acts sometimes look to the Bible to support their case.

Many biblical texts that do not directly address the issue of taking one's life have been used to condemn the act (Genesis 1-2; 9:6; Exodus 20:13; Deuteronomy 4:9, 5:17, 30:19, 32-39; 1 Samuel 2:6; Ezekiel 18:31-32; Psalms 8:28; 23:1; 104:27-30; Job 1:20-21; 2:9-10; Matthew 4:5-7; 10:28; Luke 4:9-12, 12:4-5; Romans 8:28; 1 Corinthians 6:19-20; 2 Corinthians 11:30-32; 12:7-10; Ephesians 5:29; 6:10-13; Philippians 4:11-13; 1 Peter 1:6-9; Revelation 2:10-11). 

On the other hand, other texts have been read in support of condoning suicide (or at least allowing for forgiveness for it): Psalms 139:8-10; Judges 8:18-21; 1 Kings 19:4; Jonah 4:3,9; Daniel 3:16-18; Matthew 10:39; 12:31; 28:20b; Mark 8:35; 10:42-45; Luke 7:33; 9:24; 14:26-27; 23:28-31; John 3:16; 5:28-29; 10:11-15; 13:37; 21:18-19; Romans 8:1-2,10-11,18-23,28,38-39; 14:7-12; 15:12-14; 1 Corinthians 13:3; 2 Corinthians 1:8; 5:1-10; 1 John 1:5-7; 2:15-17, 3:16; Philippians 1:21-24; Acts 20:22-24; 21:12-14; Revelation 9:6; 21:1-5). 

Altogether, however, only seven individuals take or willingly give their own lives in the Bible; two more attempt to do so, and at least one notable figure appears to consider the option.

A Reason to Die?

Abimelech, Samson, and Saul each kill themselves in order to preserve their honor during battle (see Judges 9.54; 16:28-30; and 1 Samuel 31:1-6). (For his actions, Samson is later listed among the heroes of the faith in Hebrews 11:32). Ahithopel and Zimri each take their own lives after attempting to usurp the throne of Israel at different times (see 2 Samuel 17:1, 23; 2 Kings 16:18). The account of Judas' hanging of himself out of remorse is probably the most well-known biblical example of suicide (see Matthew 27:4,5). Jonah attempts to give his life to calm the sea and save the boat's crew (Jonah 1:11-15), though ultimately he is himself saved. Likewise, the Philippian jailer who is about to throw himself on his sword because he believes his prisoners have escaped and that he has therefore failed in his duty, is stopped by Paul (Acts 16:26-29). Paul himself appears to consider taking his own life in one of his letters, but instead decides to "remain and continue" with his readers for their "progress and joy in faith" (Philippians 1:21-25).

Voluntary Death

Finally, Jesus' death can be examined in light of this issue. Few people today would be willing to describe Jesus' death as a "suicide," even though he willingly gives up his life (see John 10:18; Mark 14:36) and even seems to provoke the Judean and Roman authorities into executing him (see for example Mark 12:1-12; 14:62; 15:5). He also invites his followers to be willing to give up their own lives for the sake of the gospel as well (see Mark 8:34-38; 13:9-13). Christians in the early Church did, in fact, experience political and religious persecution just as Jesus had (See Acts 8, Stephen's martyrdom). Those Christians who willingly give their life for their faith are usually called martyrs. Making a distinction between suicide and martyrdom, however, is not always easy. In fact, grappling with such a distinction lies at the core of the central problem of the biblical and theological perspective on suicide: when, if ever, is it reasonable or permissible to take one's own life?

Ancient and modern cultures differ significantly on this matter. The Greco-Roman and ancient Hebrew cultures in which our biblical texts were written, could approve of, respect, and even admire an act of voluntary death. Taking one's own life could be an act of bravery or honor or loyalty; it could be a just punishment or simply a reasonable response to an inescapable dilemma. Philosophers and moralists debated and disagreed on the appropriate circumstances that defined an honorable voluntary death. They did not, however, question the morality of the act itself. Biblical authors and early Church theologians generally accepted these views as the few texts that explicitly address voluntary deaths show. None of them condemn the act of taking one's life itself, and some of them assume that a voluntary death for the gospel is an act of supreme virtue. Only with Augustine, who writes in the fifth century, is an act of voluntary death considered fundamentally immoral.

Martyrdom and Morality

Augustine formulated his views against voluntary death in order to suppress heretical groups like Donatists and the Circumcellions. Donatists insisted that Christians who collaborated with Roman state authority, which had stopped persecuting Christians only in the recent past, was a betrayal of the faith. They were also willing to die rather than join with the emerging Catholic Church, which now enjoyed support by the Roman state. Augustine rejected the Donatists' political views and denied that the voluntary death of a heretic was an act of martyrdom. "Punishment does not make true martyrs but the reason for the punishment." So, it is with Augustine that we first get a distinction between martyrdom and suicide, between moral and immoral forms of voluntary death. Augustine based his arguments, in part, not only on the sixth commandment — "you shall not murder" — but also on several philosophical views espoused by Plato. Augustine formulated the view that to kill one's self was to usurp the authority of God, who alone has the power to give and take life. Augustine's views were taken up and elaborated in the sixth century when they became church law; these laws were the basis of most secular laws on suicide in the modern period up until the early twentieth century.

For Further Reading

Here are some additional resources which will prove helpful to further study on this topic.

• What Does the Bible Say About Suicide? By James T. Clemons.
• A Noble Death: Suicide and Martyrdom Among Christians and Jews in Antiquity, by Arthur J. Droge and James D. Tabor.

by Eric Thurman
PhD Candidate, Drew University, Madison, NJ